English Proposal
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
English is an important means of communication, which is used by many countries in this world. It plays an important role as an international language. This is why the Indonesian government chooses English as the first foreign language to be taught in schools (Ramelan, 1992:3). English is introduced as a compulsory subject to be taught from the seventh year of Junior High School up to the twelfth year of students and as a local content subject in Elementary school.
The writer wants to discuss one of the many problems connected with English learning. English learning problems can take place both at home and at school. The teacher and the students are different, and therefore, we might find different motivations for learning as well. At school, the problems may appear when the class consists of a big number of students. The noisy class does not only disturb the students who really want to study, but also influence the students’ concentration to the subject given in class. The condition like this can make the students feel bored and do not like to study. At home, the problems may appear when they recall the subjects from school and they still do not understand the lesson and none of the people at home can help them. If this condition continues they will feel very bored and not interested in studying English. In this case the teacher’s role is very important, that is to encourage them to study harder and better.
In addition, students’ problems are not only from the classroom environment but also from the students themselves. The reality we often see is that, in fact, many students master the theory better than practice. For example, in speaking, they may have the knowledge of how to speak, but in practice they find difficulties. They lack self confidence. To build their confidence, students need more practice so that teachers are suggested to create and use interesting method. One of such the methods is story retelling. Generally, story retelling is liked by the students because they like stories. It is also an appropriate method for the students at their age.
In order to make story retelling more interesting, good media are needed. The term ‘media’ is defined by Brown: J. W, Richard B. L, Fred F: H (1969: 2-3) as tools or the physical things used by a teacher to facilitate the instruction. According to Gerlach and Elly (1980: 245), to select the appropriate media, the teacher must consider the characteristics of the students, which directly related to the learning process such as verbal abilities, visual and audio perception skills.
Other factors which also ought to be considered in media selection come from our instructional system model, that is, the organization of groups, the time available and the space in which the media will be used (Gerlach and Elly: 255). Comic is one of the many media to teach story retelling. Comics are an art form using a series of static images in fixed sequence. Using English comics as a means for teaching story retelling can be very pleasing and interesting for the students. By using English comics students will be more interested and more active in learning. They will feel something new and different from what they usually get in their class. The writer hopes that with the use of English comics they will be active as participants and they have more a chance to express their minds, emotions, feelings and attitudes.
1.2 Statements of the Problems
The problems that will be discussed in this study are:
1. How is the result of using English comics as a medium of teaching story retelling?
2. Is comic effective as a medium of teaching story retelling?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study can de stated as follows:
1. To find out whether there is any significant difference in the improvement of students’ mastery in story retelling using comics and without using comics.
2. To identify the effectiveness of English comics as a medium of teaching story retelling.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The result of this study can contribute some benefits to students and teachers. Here are the benefits:
1) Students
It may motivate students to improve their interest in learning English since they will find out that speaking, especially story retelling, not always difficult to learn. Their improvement of interest in learning English will help them master English well.
2) Teachers
The research findings are expected to be used as a consideration in teaching story retelling in the classroom.
1.5 Limitation of the Study
The writer limits this study by the following limitation:
1. The comic used for this study is taken from 17th edition The Very Best of Donald Duck Comics (Bilingual Edition).
2. This research is only conducted to the 8th year students of SMP N 1 Talaga Raya in the academic year of 2009/2010.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Characteristics of Junior High School Students
Junior high school students or teenagers are categorized into adolescents learners. In this period, teenagers like to spend their time for hanging around, friends, peers, and often disruptive behavior in class. However, they have a great capacity in learning if the teacher can engage them.
The characteristics of adolescents learners according to Harmer are:
1. They seem to be less lively and humorous than adults.
2. Identity has to be forged among classmates and friends; peer approval may be considerably more important for the student than the attention of the teacher.
3. They would be much happier if such problem did not exist.
4. They may be disruptive in class.
5. They have a great potential creativity and a passionate commitment to things that interest them.
(Harmer. 2001:38-39)
Based on the explanation above, the writer concludes that the characteristics of adolescents are period of change, new experiences, learning, instability and the most trying times in life. Schools and teachers should provide adolescents with opportunities to explore and experiment in a stable and supportive atmosphere. Teacher’s job is to provoke intellectual activity by helping them to be aware of contrasting ideas and concepts, which they can resolve by themselves-though still with the teacher’s guidance.
2. 2 Media
2.2.1 Overview of Media
Teaching is a process of communication. It has to be created through the way of teaching and exchanging the message or information by every teacher and student. The message can be knowledge, skills, ideas, experiences, and many others. Through the process of communication, the people can receive the message or information. To avoid misunderstanding in the process of communication, media are needed in the process of teaching.
Media play an important role in a teaching and learning process. Media are needed to reach the objectives of teaching-learning process. As a teacher, we should use various media or teaching aids in giving the material to the students as stated by Harmer (2001: 134) that “as a language teacher, we use a variety of teaching aids to explain language meaning and construction, engage students in a topic or as the basis of a whole activity.”
According to Gerlach and Elly (1980: 241), a medium is any person, material, or event that establishes conditions which enable learners or students to acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In addition, Brown (1977: 2-3), defines media as the tools or the physical things used by a teacher to facilitate the instruction.
From the definitions above, the writer makes a conclusion that media are the tools, materials, or events that establish conditions used by a teacher to facilitate the instruction to acquire knowledge, skill and attitudes, and engage the learners in a topic or as the basis of a whole activity. The teachers’ creativity in using media will increase the probability that students will learn more and the knowledge will retain better in their mind. There are many media that can be used in a teaching-learning process. Gerlach and Elly (1980: 297) classify media in six general categories:
1. Picture
Picture consists of photographs of any object or event, which may be larger or smaller than the object or event it represents.
2. Audio Recording
Recording is made on magnetic tape, discs, motion picture, and soundtrack. These are reproductions of actual event or sound track.
3. Motion Picture
A motion picture is a moving image in color or black and white produced from live action or from graphic representation.
4. Television
This category includes all types of Audio Video electronic distribution systems; which eventually appear on television monitor.
5. Real things, simulation and model
This category includes people, events, objects and imitation of real things. Imitation of real things can be used as a substitution for the actual objects or event. They are, in fact, life itself, often in its natural settings. Simulation is the replication of real situation, which has been designed to be as near the actual event or process as possible. Many media, including the computers, tape recordings, and motion pictures can be used for simulation. A model is replication or representation of reality. It is often in scale and may be miniature, exact size or an enlargement.
6. Program and computer-assisted instruction.
Programs are sequences of information (verbal, visual, or audio) which are designed to elicit predetermined responses. The most common examples are programmed textbooks or instructional programs prepared for computers.
From the categories above, not all of them can be applied in the classroom. According to Gerlach and Elly (1980: 254), to select the appropriate media, the teacher must consider the characteristics of the students which directly relate to the learning process, such as verbal abilities, visual and audio perception skills, experience, intelligence, motivation, personality and social skills.
Furthermore, according to Brown et all (1977), there are six principles of media selection:
1. Content
Do the media (i.e. comic book) have significant relation with the lesson? The choice of certain media must be conformed to the lesson (message) that will be given to the students.
2. Purposes
The use of the visual aids should contribute to the teaching and learning process significantly. It means that the media can facilitate the teaching-learning process.
3. Price
Before buying certain visual aids, a teacher should consider whether the cost or money spent is accordance with the educational result derived from its use.
4. Circumstance of use
In choosing a visual aid, a teacher should take into account the environment (school) where he/she teaches. He/she should think whether the aid would function effectively in that environment.
5. Learner’s verification
A teacher should think whether the aid has been tested to certain students. He/she should consider if the tested are similar to the students whom he/she teaches.
6. Validation
A teacher must think whether there are data providing that the students learnt accurately through the use of aid.
(Brown et all, 1977:76)
From the explanation above, it should be better if the teacher follows all the principles, so that the teaching and learning process can run normally and the goal of the teaching-learning process can be reached.
2.2.2 Roles of Media in a Teaching-Learning Process
The use of media in a teaching-learning process is very important. Locatis and Atkinson (1984) give a brief explanation on the roles of media or instructional media as follows:
1. To entertain
Media can be used as recreation and enjoyment. It includes fictional stories and poem published in books and magazines; records; tapes and radio broadcast of music, music typically shown in motion pictures theaters; and comedies, dramas, and sporting events in television.
2. To inform
The use of media can increase awareness or present facts. It includes newspapers, documentaries on radio and television, and advertisements in all media.
3. To instruct
Media are used to take the viewer and listener from state of not knowing to one of knowing. From a state of poor performance to a state of competence. It includes motion pictures, slides, film strips records and audiotapes.
(Locatis and Atkinson, 1984:13)
2.3 Comics
2.3.1 Definition of Comics
The precise definition of comics remains a subject of debate, with some scholars insisting that their printed nature is crucial to the definition, or that they should be defined by the interdependence of image and text. Others define the medium in terms of its sequential art. According to Scott McCloud in his book Understanding Comics (1993), comics are juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer. By this definition, single panel illustrations are not comics, but are instead cartoons.
Comics are an art form using a series of static images in fixed sequence. Written text is often incorporated. The two most common forms of comics are comic strips (as appear in newspaper) and comic books (also popularly called “manga” when referring to Japanese comic books). Comic strips are serial comics that are published in a newspaper. Whereas comic books are collections of stories that have pictures and consist of one or more title and theme. They are called comics or comic books in Indonesia. “Comics” in the UK are most likely to be a reference to comic books – the term “comic book” only became popular in the UK as a reference to import US comic books.
Collier’s Encyclopedia (1955: 402) defines comic as “term applied to a series or sequence of closely related highly stimulating drawing which differs from the ordinary cartoon in that they are not necessarily, but some artist make some of them serious, mysterious, and adventurous.” Generally, there are several categories of comics such as adventurous, war crime, real stories, and biography, jungle adventurous, animal cartoons, fun and humor, love, interest, and retold classics.
A. S. Hornby (1987: 168) states that comic is books or magazines containing stories etc. in the form of drawing.
Nana Sudjana (2002: 64) defines comics as a kind of cartoon form expressing character and playing a story in sequences of closely related drawing and designed to give fun to the readers. It contains several continued stories. The stories are brief and interesting, completed with action. Comics also appear in newspaper and book.
M. Nashir (2002: 22) says that comic, generally, is a pictorial story in magazines, newspaper, or books that is usually easy to understand and funny.
From the various definitions above, it can be concluded that comic is an art work which has sequence of stories about characteristics, events in picture form which can be humorous, mysterious, etc.
2.3.2 Strengths of Comic in Education
Strengths of comics in education according to (www.genayang.com/ comicsedu/strengths.html), can be described as follows:
1. Motivating
The most frequently mentioned asset of comics, as an educational tool, is its ability to motivate students. Through comic as a medium the teacher can give motivation to the students to learn English in more enjoyable and interesting ways.
Students, especially young learners, like to read comics. If they are given options to study or read comics, they will choose to read comics. So, with the use of comics as a medium in teaching English, the students do not realize that they are learning English. They will be more motivated to learn English.
Comics motivate the students by its pictures. The use of colors, the name of animals, and the identification of the main parts of human body can be studied and understood fast with the use of cartoon comics. Sones (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html) theorizes that pictures tell any story more effectively than words.
“The potency of picture story is not a matter of modern theory but of anciently established truth. Before man thought in words, he felt in pictures…it is too bad for us “literary” enthusiast, but it’s the truth nevertheless, pictures tell any story more effectively than words”.
(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
2. Visual
Comics, being composed of pictorial and other images, are a fundamentally visual medium. The interest of students in comics’ picture emphasizes the potential of visual medium. In a study comparing comics to text, Sones(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html) found that comics’ visual quality increases learning. Sones divided four hundred sixth into two groups, balanced in terms of both school grade and intelligence. To the first group he presented comics, to the second only text. Afterwards, each group was given a test on the content of the story. The result was the first group scored significantly higher than the second group. At the end Sones concluded that a strong trend in favor of the picture continuity was indicated by two sets of results.
“Sones’ conclusion foreshadows the trend towards teaching to multiple intelligences among educators today. He writes, “An assumption implied in most school instruction is that all children will read the printed material with equal effectiveness…The absurdity of this practice is patent” Visual learners benefit from visual media”.
(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
3. Intermediary
Comics can serve as an intermediate step to difficult disciplines and concepts. Many language arts educators have used comics in this manner with tremendous success. Karl Koenke (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html) suggests that comics can lead students toward the discipline of learning. Hutchinson’s experiment (www. genayang.com/comicsedu/ strengths.html) found out that many teachers discovered comic strips to be particularly useful in special classes or for slow learning pupils in regular classes.
Versaci (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/ strengths.html) found out that discussions on comics are generally livelier than those on classic novels. Through comics, Versaci encourages his students to think critically about the literary worth of books and the formation of the literary canon.
“Using comics, Versaci challenges college literature students to consider, evaluate, and question the very concept of a “literary canon.” Because comics are rarely considered literature, Versaci than leads his class in a discussion on literary worth. He has found out those discussions on comics are generally livelier than those on classic novels”.
(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
4. Popular
Comic is a popular reading for children. If we ask the students, whether they have read comic or not, most of them would say, “yes.” It is very popular because comic has interesting story and full of colors. That is why the children like it. By comics, students can learn about culture. Teachers can introduce popular culture into their classroom easily and effectively through comics. By incorporating popular culture into curriculum teachers can bridge the separation many students feel, between their lives in and out of school.
According to Versaci (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html), through comic books, teacher can lead their students in a study of “contemporary lifestyles, myths, and values”
“Versaci (2001) asks English teachers to consider Judd Winick’s comic book Pedro and Me: friendship, Loss, And What I learned. Pedro and Me is a touching account of the author’s friendship with Pedro Zamora/ a young AIDS activist who eventually succumbed to disease. Through comic book such as these, teachers can lead their students in a study of “contemporary lifestyles, myths, and values”. (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
2.4 The use of comic in teaching
Comic has been spread out widely as the medium to entertain. The colored illustration, simple theme and plot, and the characterization will attract the person who read it. Amazingly, nearly everyone says yes if they are asked whether they have ever read comic. The wide spread of comic has interested the writer in using comic as a medium for teaching.
A teacher may use the potential of comic in motivating the students. The main role of comic book in teaching is its strength in motivating the students’ interest. It is better to combine the use of comic with a particular method of teaching. So, the use of comic as a medium of teaching will be more effective. A teacher should help the students to find a good and enjoyable comic which is appropriate to the way the students think and the students’ age. Also, a teacher should help them get broader information and knowledge from the comic.
2.5 Definition of story retelling
Story retelling, as part of speaking activities in class, is an effective teaching tool that enables students to focus on story structure.
“Story retelling is an effective teaching and assessment tool that enables the reader to focus on specific elements of story structure. Story retelling takes place when either the student or the facilitator tells the important details of a story for enjoyment or stressing the focus on comprehension”. http://ccvi.wrcervw.org/ccvi/22_pubs/newsletters/winter1997-waevingauthenticassessment/Story_Retelling-V2-No1.html)
Story retelling encourages students to think about stories as they retell them. It helps them learn to tell stories in detail and in sequence. Children develop favorite stories early in their lives and want to hear the same story over and over again. Story retelling is a common human activity which can be enjoyable, especially if the material is interesting.
Story retelling is a procedure that enables a child to play a large role in reconstructing stories. It underlines both social and academic development. When they retell a story, they use language for an extended period of time. They construct the story. This activity increases their language development.
“When narrating stories, the speaker uses the language for an extended period of time. This active participation with stories results in increased language development, comprehension and an interest in books and in learning to read. Retelling after reading provides another opportunity for the reader to reconstruct the text”.
(http://www.bridgew.edu/library/CAGS_Projects/TPALINGO/web20 %page/srlitrev.htm)
Story retelling can play an important role in performance-based assessment of speaking. It prepares students for real-life tasks such as selecting, organizing, and conveying essential information (http:ccvi.wrcervw.org/ccvi/22-pubs/newsletters/ winter1997-weavingauthenticassessment/story-retelling-v2--.html). Story retelling as a component of authentic assessment can be introduced when the students demonstrate proficiency in identifying key story elements. The students need to be aware that the purpose of the story retelling is to obtain assessment data for self and teacher evaluation. Story retelling has also proven to be an appropriate comprehension measure for the students with varying learning abilities.
“Retelling is an effective instructional strategy for enhancing the comprehension of proficient and less proficient students. General inquiries provide more opportunity for children to express everything that they remember, which may be more than they are able to do when specific questions are asked”
(http://www.bridgew.edu/library/CAGS_Projects/TPALINGO/web20
%page/srlitrev.htm)
Here, students are required to do most of the talking, consider what they have read, and formulate their thoughts to express a true understanding of what they have read.
2.6 Application of Comics as Stimuli to Retell Story Fluently
Story retelling is not as easy as people imagine. The students will meet some difficulties in giving information if they do not have any ability in conveying an idea or a topic. Retelling story in their own language is easier than retelling story in English. Retelling story in English is really difficult for them. They have some difficulties, i.e. they might have limited vocabulary items and they might have poor ability in pronunciation.
As the person who manages the classroom activity, a teacher may use comics as the media to meet a specific instructional need. Through comics as a medium, the teacher can motivate the students to learn story retelling in more enjoyable and interesting ways. The students can enrich their new vocabulary and will know more about the structures. They will get new atmosphere in learning story retelling. Consequently, in daily activities the students have to practice their oral speaking in class using comics, in group or individually.
Furthermore, the writer concludes that teaching story retelling using comics can follow the following steps: before the teacher gives a certain comics to students, it is better for him/her to give brief explanation by telling the title. Then the teacher distributes the comics to each student to read, and ask them to read two or three times. After that, they retell the same story in different ways. When they have finished retelling it to their partners, the teacher will ask them to come forward one by one to retell it. He/she will record the students’ voice, and then the students’ score based on their pronunciation, grammar, fluency and content in story retelling.
2.7 Experimental Research
An experiment involves the comparison of the effects of a particular treatment with that of a different treatment or of no treatment. In a simple conventional experiment reference is usually made to an experimental group and to a control group (Best, 1981:59). In other words, an experimental research tries to observe the cause-and-effect relation. Comparing one or more experimental groups who get a treatment with one or more control groups who do not get any treatment is the way to conduct experimental research. Best (1981:57) states that experimental research provides a systematic and logical method for answering the question, if this is done under carefully controlled conditions, what will happen?” Experiments are designed to collect data in such a way that threats to the reliability and validity of the research are ministered (Nunan, 1993: 47). Picciano (www.hunter.cuny.edu/edu/apiccian/edstat09.html#return) argues,
“Experimental research is defined essentially as research in which the causal (independent) variable(s) can be manipulated in order to change the effect. Experimental researchers are particularly concerned with the issue of external validity, and the formal experiment is specifically designed to enable the researcher to extrapolate the outcomes of the research from the sample to the broader population.”
Basically, the strategies and the steps in conducting experimental research are similar to the strategies and the steps in conducting research in general. The steps are:
1. Reading literature sources to get the problems of the research.
2. Identifying and stating the problems.
3. Determining the limitation of terms and variable, hypothesis, and supported theory.
4. Designing the experiment.
5. Conducting the experiment.
6. Choosing the appropriate data that can represent the experiment group and the control group.
7. Finding out the significant relation to get the result of the experiment using an appropriate technique. (Arikunto, 2003: 275-276)
Experimental design is the blueprint of the procedures that enable the researcher to test hypotheses by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variable (Best, 1981: 68). Selection of a particular design is based upon the purposes of the experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the conditions or limiting factors under which it is conducted. According to Best (1981: 68-81), there are three categories of experimental design.
True Experimental Design
In a true experiment the equivalence of the experiment and control groups is provided by random assignment of subjects to experiment and control treatments. In discussing experimental designs, a few symbols are used:
R = random selection of subjects
X = experimental variable
C = control variable
O = observation or test
There are three models of true experimental designs:
1) The posttest-only, equivalent-groups design
This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats to experimental validity. Experimental and control group are equated by random assignment. At the conclusion of the experimental period the difference between the mean test scores of the experimental and control groups are subjected to a test of statistical significance, a t test, or an analysis of variance. The assumption is that the means of randomly assigned experimental and control groups from the same population will differ only to the extent that random sample means from the same population will differ as a result of sampling error. If the difference between the means is too great to attribute to sampling error, the difference may be attributed to the treatment variable effect.
2) The pretest-posttest equivalent-groups design
X gain = O2 – O1 O1 O3 = pretest
C gain = O4 – O3 O2 O4 = posttest
This design is similar to the previously described design, except that pretests are administered before the application of the experimental and control treatments and posttests at the end of the treatment period. Gain scores may be compared and subjected to a test of the significance of the difference between means. This is a strong design, but there may be a possibility of the influence of the effect of testing and the interaction with the experimental variable.
3) The Solomon four-group design
The design is really a combination of the two group designs previously described, the population is randomly divided into four samples. Two of the groups are experimental samples. Two groups experience no experimental manipulation of variables. Two groups receive a pretest and a posttest. Two groups receive only a posttest. It is possible to evaluate the main effects of testing, history, and maturation. A two-way analysis of variance is used to compare the four posttest scores, analysis of covariance to compare gains in O2 and O4. Since this design provides for two simultaneous experiments, the advantages of a replication are incorporated. A major difficulty is finding enough subjects to randomly assign to four equivalent groups.
CHAPTER III
METODOLOGY OF STUDY
3.1 Subjects of the Study
3.1.1 Population
Best (1991: 8) states that population is any group of individuals that has one or more characteristics in common, while according to Johnson (1987: 110), population is the entire group of entities or persons to which the results of the study are intended to apply. The population of this study was the 8th year students of SMP N 1 Talaga Raya, in the academic year of 2006/2007. The total number of the population was 308 students divided into 7 classes. It means that each class had 44 students. The reason for choosing the 8th year students was because there was an English-speaking extracurricular activity. This activity was held once a week. Therefore, the writer decided to choose this school based on this consideration.
3.1.2 Sample
Sometimes, the number of population is too big so it is out of the reach. In this case, the research is conducted to a part of the whole population. This part must have the characteristics that represent the whole population. According to Best (1981: 8) a sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.
In selecting sample, the writer used random sampling. According to Arikunto (1998:120), research may take 1 up to 15 percent or 20 up to 25 percent out of the population. Therefore, the writer took 13 percent out of 308 students or equal to 40 students as the sample for this study. The sample was divided into two groups consisting of 20 students in experiment group and 20 students in control group.
The writer cannot take the sample randomly from the population because the population was in intact classes. The writer chose 20 students of VIII.C and 20 students of VIII.D. The reasons why the writer chose these two classes were because the averages of the English scores were not significantly different, and the same English teacher taught these two classes. The writer did lottery to choose which one would be experiment class and control class. Then the writer chose the students with even numbers in experiment class and odd numbers in control class. The writer did not take all of the students both in VIII.C and VIII.D classes for efficiency and practical reasons.
3.2 Variable
According to Brown (1988: 7-8), a variable is something that may vary or differ. A variable is essentially what we can observe or quantity of the human characteristics or abilities involved. Best (1981: 59) states that variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls, or observes.
1) Dependent variable
Dependent variable is the factor that is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable, that is, the factor that appears, disappears or varies as the experimenter introduces, removes, or varies the independent variable (Tuckman: 59). Based on the definition, the dependent variable of this study is the students’ achievement. The students’ score of story retelling test indicates the students’ achievement
2) Independent variable
Independent variable is the factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon (Tuckman: 58-59). Based on the definition, the independent variable of this study is the use of comics in teaching story retelling.
3.3 Research Design
In this research the writer used true experimental design, specifically the pretest-posttest equivalent groups design.
The pretest-posttest groups design figures:
R O1 X O2
R O3 C O4
X gain = O2-O1 O1 O3 = pretest X = experiment
C gain = O4-O3 O2 O4 = posttest C = control
This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats to experimental validity. Pretests are administered before the application of the experimental and control treatments and posttests at the end of the treatment period. Gain scores may be compared and subjected to a test of significance of the difference between two means (Best, 1981:70).
Based on this statement, the writer gave the pretest to both groups. The writer gave a treatment, i.e. giving cartoon comic twice a week for a month, to the experiment group as an alternative way of teaching speaking. Their own English teacher taught the control group by using stories in written text.
3.4 Instrument
Kerlinger (1965:118) states that an instrument plays an important role in a study in the sense that reliability of the instrument will influence the reliability of the data obtained. Before collecting the data, the writer made instrument such as a rating scale and a questionnaire.
1. Rating Scale
The writer used a rating scale as proposed by Harris to score the students' result in speaking test. This is a 5-level rating scale. This rating scale measures the students' speaking skills especially in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.
The rating scales for the speaking test modified from David P. Harris and Walter Bartz can be seen as follow:
Table 1
Rating Scale
Pronunciation 5
4
3
2
1 Speech consists of almost appropriate pronunciation
Speech consists of hardly incorrect pronunciation
Speech consists of some inappropriate pronunciation
Speech consists of mostly inappropriate pronunciation
Speech consists of very poor pronunciation
Grammar 5
4
3
2
1 Makes few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar or word order
Occasionally makes grammatical and/or word-order
errors which do not, however, obscure
Makes frequent errors of grammar and word order which occasionally obscure meaning
Grammar and word-order errors make comprehension difficult. Must often rephrase sentences and/or restrict himself to basic pattern.
Errors in grammar and word order so severe as to make conversation virtually unintelligible
Vocabulary 5
4
3
2
1 Use of wide range of vocabulary taught previously
Sometimes uses inappropriate terms and/or must rephrase ideas because of lexical inadequacies
Frequently uses the wrong words; conversation somewhat limited because of inadequate vocabulary
Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary make comprehension quite difficult
Vocabulary limitations so extreme as to make conversation virtually impossible
Fluency 5
4
3
2
1 Speech is quite flowing style, mostly easy to understand
Speed of speech seems to be slightly affected by language problems
Speed and fluency are rather strongly affected by language problems
Usually hesitant; often forced into silence by language limitation
Speech is so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible
Content 5
4
3
2
1 Ideas highly organized, covers all of the elements of the story
Ideas well organized, covers almost all of the elements of the story
Ideas less organized, some missing parts of the elements of story
Ideas less organized, covers only the main elements of the story
Unorganized ideas, a lot of missing parts of the elements.
2. Questionnaire
After doing the post-test, the writer distributed questionnaire in the last activity. The purpose was to answer the questions about the students' achievement in receiving the material from the writer. The questions were about:
1. The students' interest in comics that were given by the writer during the research.
2. The relevance between the vocabulary offered in this research and the vocabulary that the students often use in their daily speaking.
3. The students' mastery of the material.
4. The sustainability of the research program.
The questionnaire can be seen in appendix 13.
Providing value of graded scores is very important, since the result of the mean is not in round figure, but decimal. The result of the questionnaire data analysis of each issue can be classified into a range of mean below.
Table 2
Classification of graded Scores
Range of
mean Students'
interest
The relevance Students'
achievement Sustainability
0.00-1.00 Low Not relevant Low Not
necessary
1.01-2.00 Medium Relevant Medium Necessary
2.01-3.00 High Very relevant High Very
necessary
The aim of this research was to measure the speaking ability of the students. The writer used the rating scale to measure the students’ speaking ability especially in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. In this research the writer used a recorder to record the students' voices for accuracy of scoring.
To observe the students’ speaking ability, the writer and the teacher asked the students to come forward and retell the story in 3-5 minutes individually. Then, the writer and the teacher scored the student's speaking ability using the rating scale modified from David P Harris and Walter Bartz. There were five components in scoring the speaking test. First component was pronunciation. The teacher and the writer rated 5 for the pronunciation if the student speech consisted
of almost appropriate pronunciation; 4 if student’s speech consisted of hardly incorrect pronunciation; 3 if student’s speech consisted of inappropriate pronunciation; 2 if student’s speech consisted of mostly inappropriate pronunciation and 1 if student’s speech consisted of very poor pronunciation.
The second component was grammar. For student's mastery of grammar, a student was rated 5 if he/she made few noticeable errors of grammar or word- order; 4 if he/she occasionally made grammatical or word-order errors which did not, however, obscure meaning; 3 if he/she made frequent errors of grammar and word order which occasionally obscure meaning; 2 if he/she produced grammar and word-order errors that made comprehension difficult and 1 if he/she made errors in grammar and word order so severe as to make conversation virtually unintelligible.
The third component was vocabulary. For mastery of vocabulary, the student was rated 5 if he/she used wide range of vocabulary taught previously; 4 if he/she sometimes used inappropriate terms or had to rephrase ideas because of lexical inadequacies; 3 if he/she frequently used the wrong words, conversation somewhat limited because of inadequate vocabulary; 2 if he/she misused of words and very limited vocabulary made comprehension quite difficult and 1 if his/her limitation of vocabulary was so extreme as to make conversation virtually impossible.
The fourth component was fluency. The teacher and the writer rated 5 if student’s speech was quite flowing style, mostly easy to understand; 4 if student’s speed of speech seemed to be slightly affected by language problems; 3 if speed and fluency of the student were rather strongly affected by language problems; 2 if student’s speech was usually hesitant; often forced into silence by language limitation and 1 if student’s speech was so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible.
The fifth component was content. If the student's ideas were highly organized, it covered all of the elements of the story, the writer and the teacher rated him/her 5; student was rated 4 if his/her ideas were well organized, it covered almost all of the elements of the story; 3 if his/her ideas were less organized, there were some missing parts of the elements of the story; 2 if his/her ideas were less organized, it covered only the main elements of the story and 1 if his/her ideas were unorganized, there were a lot of missing parts of the elements of the story.
The scale of 0 up to 100 will be used to make the scoring easier. Here, the maximum rate a student got was 25. So, the obtained rate was multiplied by 4.
3.5 The Try Out
Trying out the test is necessary since the result can be used to measure the validity and the reliability of the test and it can be carried out in either a small scale or a large one (Arikunto, 1993:223).
Before the rating scale was used as an instrument to collect the data, it had been tried out first to the students in an other class. The rating scale consisted of 5 components of scoring. They were pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. There were 20 students in try out group and they had to do the test orally in 3-5 minutes. After scoring the result of the try out, the writer made an analysis to find out the validity and reliability of the items of the test.
The try out was held on December 14th, 2006 in other class. There were 20 students in the try out group. The result of the try out can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6 Condition of the Test
3.6.1 Validity of the Test
The validity of a test represents the extent to which a test measures what is purpose to measure. In simple word does the test really measure the characteristic that is being used to measure (Tuckman, 1978: 163). In addition, according to Best (1981: 153), validity is that quality of a data-gathering instrument or procedure that enables it to determine what it was designed to determine. Validity is a standard criterion that shows whether the instrument is valid or not.
The writer used empirical validity since this research deals with statistical. To calculate the empirical validity of each item, the writer used Pearson Product Moment proposed by Arikunto (2002: 146). The formula is:
Where:
rxy : the coefficient of correlation between X and Y variable or
validity of each item.
N : the number of students/subject participating in the test
X : the sum of X scores
Y : the sum of Y scores
∑Y : the sum of total score for each student
∑X : the sum of score in each item
∑XY : the sum of multiple score from each student with the total score in
each item
∑X2 : the sum of the square score in each item
∑Y2 : the sum of square total score from each student
rxy = 0.857. For α = 5% and number of the subject 20, r table = 0.444.
Because the result of the instrument is higher than the critical value, it is considered that the instrument is valid. The computation of validity can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6.2 Reliability of the Test
The reliability of the test is the quality of consistency that the instrument or procedure demonstrates over a period of time (Best, 1981:154). Reliability shows whether the instrument is reliable and can be used as a device to collect the data. Reliability means the stability of test scores when the test is used. To measure the reliability of the test, the writer used the formula:
where:
r11 : index reliability
k : number of item
αb2 : item variance
αt2 :total variance
To find out the variance of each item, the formula is :
Then to find out the total variance, the formula is:
r11 = 0.826, for α = 5% and number subject 20, r table = 0.444. Because the result of the instrument is higher than the critical value, it is considered that the instrument is reliable. The computation of reliability can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6.3 The Difficulty Level
Analysis of difficulty level is intended to select the items which have good level of difficulty. Heaton (1981: 172) states that the index of difficulty or the facility value of an item simply shows how easy or difficult the particular item proved in the test. An item considered having good level of difficulty if it is not too difficult or too easy. To calculate the value of the level of difficulty, the following formula was used:
Where
IK : the difficulties of the index
B : the number of students who passed the passing grade
Js : the total number of testees
(Arifin, 1991: 135)
Table 3
The criteria of difficulty level
Level Criteria
0% < TK < 27%
27% < TK < 72%
72% < TK < 100% Difficult
Medium
Easy
If the index difficulty is high, an item considered easy, on the other hand, an item is considered difficult if it is low.
The computation of the difficulty level can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6.4 Discriminating Power
Discriminating power tells how the item performs in separating the better from the poorer students. If the good students tend to do well on an item and the poor students badly on the same item, then the item is a good one because it distinguishes the good from the poor students.
Heaton (1975: 173) states that the discrimination index of an item indicates the extent to which the item discriminates between the testees separating the more from the less able. The index of discrimination tell us whether those students who performed well on the whole test tended to do or badly on each item in the test.
The writer calculated the item discrimination using the formula:
The computation of the discriminating power can be seen in appendix 4.
3.7 Scoring System
Testing speaking requires the subjective judgments on the part of the raters, thus, teacher’ perception of oral assessment and oral assessment rating scales affect the testing process substantially (Weir, 1990). To minimize subjective judgments, the writer and the teacher score the students used rating scales developed by David P. Harris modified by Walter Bartz and then the score divided by two.
In this study, the writer gave oral test to the students and analyzed their scores to measure the improvement and gave scores on pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.
In order for the raw scores to become more meaningful numerical data, they should be converted to numerical data, which had been processed to the scale of 0 to 100, so the scores of the students was multiply by 4. Then, the processed scores could be used as a basic to make decisions. If all students, scores were arranged from the highest to the lowest, it would be easier to know the position of a student in his/her group.
The measurement of the students' achievement that is suggested by Harris (1969: 134) could be interpreted with the following table.
Table 4
Students' achievement
Criteria of mastery Grade
91-100 Excellent
81-90 Very Good
71-80 Good
61-70 Fair
51-60 Poor
Less than 50 Very Poor
3.8 Method of Data Analysis
After collecting the data, the writer analyzed them by using statistical analysis. The writer transcribed the students’ oral test on paper and then she scored the result of oral test.
To differentiate whether the students’ result of speaking English using comic and without using comic is significant or not the writer used the t-test formula as follow:
Where
t : t-test
Me : the mean difference of the experiment group
Mc : the mean difference of control group
Sse : sum of quadrate deviation of the experiment group
Ssc : sum of quadrate deviation of the control group
Ne : the number of experiment group
Nc : the number of control group
Before calculating the t-test the writer calculated mean, variance, and standard deviation.
3.8.1 Mean
Mean is computed by using the formula:
where:
X : mean
X : sum of scores
N : number of scores
3.8.2 Variance
The variance of a group of scores is computed by using the following formula:
where:
S 2 : variance
X : individual scores
N : number of scores in the group
3.8.3 Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a group of scores is computed by using the following formula:
where:
S : standard deviation
X : individual scores
N : number of scores in group
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
English is an important means of communication, which is used by many countries in this world. It plays an important role as an international language. This is why the Indonesian government chooses English as the first foreign language to be taught in schools (Ramelan, 1992:3). English is introduced as a compulsory subject to be taught from the seventh year of Junior High School up to the twelfth year of students and as a local content subject in Elementary school.
The writer wants to discuss one of the many problems connected with English learning. English learning problems can take place both at home and at school. The teacher and the students are different, and therefore, we might find different motivations for learning as well. At school, the problems may appear when the class consists of a big number of students. The noisy class does not only disturb the students who really want to study, but also influence the students’ concentration to the subject given in class. The condition like this can make the students feel bored and do not like to study. At home, the problems may appear when they recall the subjects from school and they still do not understand the lesson and none of the people at home can help them. If this condition continues they will feel very bored and not interested in studying English. In this case the teacher’s role is very important, that is to encourage them to study harder and better.
In addition, students’ problems are not only from the classroom environment but also from the students themselves. The reality we often see is that, in fact, many students master the theory better than practice. For example, in speaking, they may have the knowledge of how to speak, but in practice they find difficulties. They lack self confidence. To build their confidence, students need more practice so that teachers are suggested to create and use interesting method. One of such the methods is story retelling. Generally, story retelling is liked by the students because they like stories. It is also an appropriate method for the students at their age.
In order to make story retelling more interesting, good media are needed. The term ‘media’ is defined by Brown: J. W, Richard B. L, Fred F: H (1969: 2-3) as tools or the physical things used by a teacher to facilitate the instruction. According to Gerlach and Elly (1980: 245), to select the appropriate media, the teacher must consider the characteristics of the students, which directly related to the learning process such as verbal abilities, visual and audio perception skills.
Other factors which also ought to be considered in media selection come from our instructional system model, that is, the organization of groups, the time available and the space in which the media will be used (Gerlach and Elly: 255). Comic is one of the many media to teach story retelling. Comics are an art form using a series of static images in fixed sequence. Using English comics as a means for teaching story retelling can be very pleasing and interesting for the students. By using English comics students will be more interested and more active in learning. They will feel something new and different from what they usually get in their class. The writer hopes that with the use of English comics they will be active as participants and they have more a chance to express their minds, emotions, feelings and attitudes.
1.2 Statements of the Problems
The problems that will be discussed in this study are:
1. How is the result of using English comics as a medium of teaching story retelling?
2. Is comic effective as a medium of teaching story retelling?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study can de stated as follows:
1. To find out whether there is any significant difference in the improvement of students’ mastery in story retelling using comics and without using comics.
2. To identify the effectiveness of English comics as a medium of teaching story retelling.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The result of this study can contribute some benefits to students and teachers. Here are the benefits:
1) Students
It may motivate students to improve their interest in learning English since they will find out that speaking, especially story retelling, not always difficult to learn. Their improvement of interest in learning English will help them master English well.
2) Teachers
The research findings are expected to be used as a consideration in teaching story retelling in the classroom.
1.5 Limitation of the Study
The writer limits this study by the following limitation:
1. The comic used for this study is taken from 17th edition The Very Best of Donald Duck Comics (Bilingual Edition).
2. This research is only conducted to the 8th year students of SMP N 1 Talaga Raya in the academic year of 2009/2010.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Characteristics of Junior High School Students
Junior high school students or teenagers are categorized into adolescents learners. In this period, teenagers like to spend their time for hanging around, friends, peers, and often disruptive behavior in class. However, they have a great capacity in learning if the teacher can engage them.
The characteristics of adolescents learners according to Harmer are:
1. They seem to be less lively and humorous than adults.
2. Identity has to be forged among classmates and friends; peer approval may be considerably more important for the student than the attention of the teacher.
3. They would be much happier if such problem did not exist.
4. They may be disruptive in class.
5. They have a great potential creativity and a passionate commitment to things that interest them.
(Harmer. 2001:38-39)
Based on the explanation above, the writer concludes that the characteristics of adolescents are period of change, new experiences, learning, instability and the most trying times in life. Schools and teachers should provide adolescents with opportunities to explore and experiment in a stable and supportive atmosphere. Teacher’s job is to provoke intellectual activity by helping them to be aware of contrasting ideas and concepts, which they can resolve by themselves-though still with the teacher’s guidance.
2. 2 Media
2.2.1 Overview of Media
Teaching is a process of communication. It has to be created through the way of teaching and exchanging the message or information by every teacher and student. The message can be knowledge, skills, ideas, experiences, and many others. Through the process of communication, the people can receive the message or information. To avoid misunderstanding in the process of communication, media are needed in the process of teaching.
Media play an important role in a teaching and learning process. Media are needed to reach the objectives of teaching-learning process. As a teacher, we should use various media or teaching aids in giving the material to the students as stated by Harmer (2001: 134) that “as a language teacher, we use a variety of teaching aids to explain language meaning and construction, engage students in a topic or as the basis of a whole activity.”
According to Gerlach and Elly (1980: 241), a medium is any person, material, or event that establishes conditions which enable learners or students to acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In addition, Brown (1977: 2-3), defines media as the tools or the physical things used by a teacher to facilitate the instruction.
From the definitions above, the writer makes a conclusion that media are the tools, materials, or events that establish conditions used by a teacher to facilitate the instruction to acquire knowledge, skill and attitudes, and engage the learners in a topic or as the basis of a whole activity. The teachers’ creativity in using media will increase the probability that students will learn more and the knowledge will retain better in their mind. There are many media that can be used in a teaching-learning process. Gerlach and Elly (1980: 297) classify media in six general categories:
1. Picture
Picture consists of photographs of any object or event, which may be larger or smaller than the object or event it represents.
2. Audio Recording
Recording is made on magnetic tape, discs, motion picture, and soundtrack. These are reproductions of actual event or sound track.
3. Motion Picture
A motion picture is a moving image in color or black and white produced from live action or from graphic representation.
4. Television
This category includes all types of Audio Video electronic distribution systems; which eventually appear on television monitor.
5. Real things, simulation and model
This category includes people, events, objects and imitation of real things. Imitation of real things can be used as a substitution for the actual objects or event. They are, in fact, life itself, often in its natural settings. Simulation is the replication of real situation, which has been designed to be as near the actual event or process as possible. Many media, including the computers, tape recordings, and motion pictures can be used for simulation. A model is replication or representation of reality. It is often in scale and may be miniature, exact size or an enlargement.
6. Program and computer-assisted instruction.
Programs are sequences of information (verbal, visual, or audio) which are designed to elicit predetermined responses. The most common examples are programmed textbooks or instructional programs prepared for computers.
From the categories above, not all of them can be applied in the classroom. According to Gerlach and Elly (1980: 254), to select the appropriate media, the teacher must consider the characteristics of the students which directly relate to the learning process, such as verbal abilities, visual and audio perception skills, experience, intelligence, motivation, personality and social skills.
Furthermore, according to Brown et all (1977), there are six principles of media selection:
1. Content
Do the media (i.e. comic book) have significant relation with the lesson? The choice of certain media must be conformed to the lesson (message) that will be given to the students.
2. Purposes
The use of the visual aids should contribute to the teaching and learning process significantly. It means that the media can facilitate the teaching-learning process.
3. Price
Before buying certain visual aids, a teacher should consider whether the cost or money spent is accordance with the educational result derived from its use.
4. Circumstance of use
In choosing a visual aid, a teacher should take into account the environment (school) where he/she teaches. He/she should think whether the aid would function effectively in that environment.
5. Learner’s verification
A teacher should think whether the aid has been tested to certain students. He/she should consider if the tested are similar to the students whom he/she teaches.
6. Validation
A teacher must think whether there are data providing that the students learnt accurately through the use of aid.
(Brown et all, 1977:76)
From the explanation above, it should be better if the teacher follows all the principles, so that the teaching and learning process can run normally and the goal of the teaching-learning process can be reached.
2.2.2 Roles of Media in a Teaching-Learning Process
The use of media in a teaching-learning process is very important. Locatis and Atkinson (1984) give a brief explanation on the roles of media or instructional media as follows:
1. To entertain
Media can be used as recreation and enjoyment. It includes fictional stories and poem published in books and magazines; records; tapes and radio broadcast of music, music typically shown in motion pictures theaters; and comedies, dramas, and sporting events in television.
2. To inform
The use of media can increase awareness or present facts. It includes newspapers, documentaries on radio and television, and advertisements in all media.
3. To instruct
Media are used to take the viewer and listener from state of not knowing to one of knowing. From a state of poor performance to a state of competence. It includes motion pictures, slides, film strips records and audiotapes.
(Locatis and Atkinson, 1984:13)
2.3 Comics
2.3.1 Definition of Comics
The precise definition of comics remains a subject of debate, with some scholars insisting that their printed nature is crucial to the definition, or that they should be defined by the interdependence of image and text. Others define the medium in terms of its sequential art. According to Scott McCloud in his book Understanding Comics (1993), comics are juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer. By this definition, single panel illustrations are not comics, but are instead cartoons.
Comics are an art form using a series of static images in fixed sequence. Written text is often incorporated. The two most common forms of comics are comic strips (as appear in newspaper) and comic books (also popularly called “manga” when referring to Japanese comic books). Comic strips are serial comics that are published in a newspaper. Whereas comic books are collections of stories that have pictures and consist of one or more title and theme. They are called comics or comic books in Indonesia. “Comics” in the UK are most likely to be a reference to comic books – the term “comic book” only became popular in the UK as a reference to import US comic books.
Collier’s Encyclopedia (1955: 402) defines comic as “term applied to a series or sequence of closely related highly stimulating drawing which differs from the ordinary cartoon in that they are not necessarily, but some artist make some of them serious, mysterious, and adventurous.” Generally, there are several categories of comics such as adventurous, war crime, real stories, and biography, jungle adventurous, animal cartoons, fun and humor, love, interest, and retold classics.
A. S. Hornby (1987: 168) states that comic is books or magazines containing stories etc. in the form of drawing.
Nana Sudjana (2002: 64) defines comics as a kind of cartoon form expressing character and playing a story in sequences of closely related drawing and designed to give fun to the readers. It contains several continued stories. The stories are brief and interesting, completed with action. Comics also appear in newspaper and book.
M. Nashir (2002: 22) says that comic, generally, is a pictorial story in magazines, newspaper, or books that is usually easy to understand and funny.
From the various definitions above, it can be concluded that comic is an art work which has sequence of stories about characteristics, events in picture form which can be humorous, mysterious, etc.
2.3.2 Strengths of Comic in Education
Strengths of comics in education according to (www.genayang.com/ comicsedu/strengths.html), can be described as follows:
1. Motivating
The most frequently mentioned asset of comics, as an educational tool, is its ability to motivate students. Through comic as a medium the teacher can give motivation to the students to learn English in more enjoyable and interesting ways.
Students, especially young learners, like to read comics. If they are given options to study or read comics, they will choose to read comics. So, with the use of comics as a medium in teaching English, the students do not realize that they are learning English. They will be more motivated to learn English.
Comics motivate the students by its pictures. The use of colors, the name of animals, and the identification of the main parts of human body can be studied and understood fast with the use of cartoon comics. Sones (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html) theorizes that pictures tell any story more effectively than words.
“The potency of picture story is not a matter of modern theory but of anciently established truth. Before man thought in words, he felt in pictures…it is too bad for us “literary” enthusiast, but it’s the truth nevertheless, pictures tell any story more effectively than words”.
(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
2. Visual
Comics, being composed of pictorial and other images, are a fundamentally visual medium. The interest of students in comics’ picture emphasizes the potential of visual medium. In a study comparing comics to text, Sones(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html) found that comics’ visual quality increases learning. Sones divided four hundred sixth into two groups, balanced in terms of both school grade and intelligence. To the first group he presented comics, to the second only text. Afterwards, each group was given a test on the content of the story. The result was the first group scored significantly higher than the second group. At the end Sones concluded that a strong trend in favor of the picture continuity was indicated by two sets of results.
“Sones’ conclusion foreshadows the trend towards teaching to multiple intelligences among educators today. He writes, “An assumption implied in most school instruction is that all children will read the printed material with equal effectiveness…The absurdity of this practice is patent” Visual learners benefit from visual media”.
(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
3. Intermediary
Comics can serve as an intermediate step to difficult disciplines and concepts. Many language arts educators have used comics in this manner with tremendous success. Karl Koenke (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html) suggests that comics can lead students toward the discipline of learning. Hutchinson’s experiment (www. genayang.com/comicsedu/ strengths.html) found out that many teachers discovered comic strips to be particularly useful in special classes or for slow learning pupils in regular classes.
Versaci (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/ strengths.html) found out that discussions on comics are generally livelier than those on classic novels. Through comics, Versaci encourages his students to think critically about the literary worth of books and the formation of the literary canon.
“Using comics, Versaci challenges college literature students to consider, evaluate, and question the very concept of a “literary canon.” Because comics are rarely considered literature, Versaci than leads his class in a discussion on literary worth. He has found out those discussions on comics are generally livelier than those on classic novels”.
(www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
4. Popular
Comic is a popular reading for children. If we ask the students, whether they have read comic or not, most of them would say, “yes.” It is very popular because comic has interesting story and full of colors. That is why the children like it. By comics, students can learn about culture. Teachers can introduce popular culture into their classroom easily and effectively through comics. By incorporating popular culture into curriculum teachers can bridge the separation many students feel, between their lives in and out of school.
According to Versaci (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html), through comic books, teacher can lead their students in a study of “contemporary lifestyles, myths, and values”
“Versaci (2001) asks English teachers to consider Judd Winick’s comic book Pedro and Me: friendship, Loss, And What I learned. Pedro and Me is a touching account of the author’s friendship with Pedro Zamora/ a young AIDS activist who eventually succumbed to disease. Through comic book such as these, teachers can lead their students in a study of “contemporary lifestyles, myths, and values”. (www.genayang.com/comicsedu/strengths.html)
2.4 The use of comic in teaching
Comic has been spread out widely as the medium to entertain. The colored illustration, simple theme and plot, and the characterization will attract the person who read it. Amazingly, nearly everyone says yes if they are asked whether they have ever read comic. The wide spread of comic has interested the writer in using comic as a medium for teaching.
A teacher may use the potential of comic in motivating the students. The main role of comic book in teaching is its strength in motivating the students’ interest. It is better to combine the use of comic with a particular method of teaching. So, the use of comic as a medium of teaching will be more effective. A teacher should help the students to find a good and enjoyable comic which is appropriate to the way the students think and the students’ age. Also, a teacher should help them get broader information and knowledge from the comic.
2.5 Definition of story retelling
Story retelling, as part of speaking activities in class, is an effective teaching tool that enables students to focus on story structure.
“Story retelling is an effective teaching and assessment tool that enables the reader to focus on specific elements of story structure. Story retelling takes place when either the student or the facilitator tells the important details of a story for enjoyment or stressing the focus on comprehension”. http://ccvi.wrcervw.org/ccvi/22_pubs/newsletters/winter1997-waevingauthenticassessment/Story_Retelling-V2-No1.html)
Story retelling encourages students to think about stories as they retell them. It helps them learn to tell stories in detail and in sequence. Children develop favorite stories early in their lives and want to hear the same story over and over again. Story retelling is a common human activity which can be enjoyable, especially if the material is interesting.
Story retelling is a procedure that enables a child to play a large role in reconstructing stories. It underlines both social and academic development. When they retell a story, they use language for an extended period of time. They construct the story. This activity increases their language development.
“When narrating stories, the speaker uses the language for an extended period of time. This active participation with stories results in increased language development, comprehension and an interest in books and in learning to read. Retelling after reading provides another opportunity for the reader to reconstruct the text”.
(http://www.bridgew.edu/library/CAGS_Projects/TPALINGO/web20 %page/srlitrev.htm)
Story retelling can play an important role in performance-based assessment of speaking. It prepares students for real-life tasks such as selecting, organizing, and conveying essential information (http:ccvi.wrcervw.org/ccvi/22-pubs/newsletters/ winter1997-weavingauthenticassessment/story-retelling-v2--.html). Story retelling as a component of authentic assessment can be introduced when the students demonstrate proficiency in identifying key story elements. The students need to be aware that the purpose of the story retelling is to obtain assessment data for self and teacher evaluation. Story retelling has also proven to be an appropriate comprehension measure for the students with varying learning abilities.
“Retelling is an effective instructional strategy for enhancing the comprehension of proficient and less proficient students. General inquiries provide more opportunity for children to express everything that they remember, which may be more than they are able to do when specific questions are asked”
(http://www.bridgew.edu/library/CAGS_Projects/TPALINGO/web20
%page/srlitrev.htm)
Here, students are required to do most of the talking, consider what they have read, and formulate their thoughts to express a true understanding of what they have read.
2.6 Application of Comics as Stimuli to Retell Story Fluently
Story retelling is not as easy as people imagine. The students will meet some difficulties in giving information if they do not have any ability in conveying an idea or a topic. Retelling story in their own language is easier than retelling story in English. Retelling story in English is really difficult for them. They have some difficulties, i.e. they might have limited vocabulary items and they might have poor ability in pronunciation.
As the person who manages the classroom activity, a teacher may use comics as the media to meet a specific instructional need. Through comics as a medium, the teacher can motivate the students to learn story retelling in more enjoyable and interesting ways. The students can enrich their new vocabulary and will know more about the structures. They will get new atmosphere in learning story retelling. Consequently, in daily activities the students have to practice their oral speaking in class using comics, in group or individually.
Furthermore, the writer concludes that teaching story retelling using comics can follow the following steps: before the teacher gives a certain comics to students, it is better for him/her to give brief explanation by telling the title. Then the teacher distributes the comics to each student to read, and ask them to read two or three times. After that, they retell the same story in different ways. When they have finished retelling it to their partners, the teacher will ask them to come forward one by one to retell it. He/she will record the students’ voice, and then the students’ score based on their pronunciation, grammar, fluency and content in story retelling.
2.7 Experimental Research
An experiment involves the comparison of the effects of a particular treatment with that of a different treatment or of no treatment. In a simple conventional experiment reference is usually made to an experimental group and to a control group (Best, 1981:59). In other words, an experimental research tries to observe the cause-and-effect relation. Comparing one or more experimental groups who get a treatment with one or more control groups who do not get any treatment is the way to conduct experimental research. Best (1981:57) states that experimental research provides a systematic and logical method for answering the question, if this is done under carefully controlled conditions, what will happen?” Experiments are designed to collect data in such a way that threats to the reliability and validity of the research are ministered (Nunan, 1993: 47). Picciano (www.hunter.cuny.edu/edu/apiccian/edstat09.html#return) argues,
“Experimental research is defined essentially as research in which the causal (independent) variable(s) can be manipulated in order to change the effect. Experimental researchers are particularly concerned with the issue of external validity, and the formal experiment is specifically designed to enable the researcher to extrapolate the outcomes of the research from the sample to the broader population.”
Basically, the strategies and the steps in conducting experimental research are similar to the strategies and the steps in conducting research in general. The steps are:
1. Reading literature sources to get the problems of the research.
2. Identifying and stating the problems.
3. Determining the limitation of terms and variable, hypothesis, and supported theory.
4. Designing the experiment.
5. Conducting the experiment.
6. Choosing the appropriate data that can represent the experiment group and the control group.
7. Finding out the significant relation to get the result of the experiment using an appropriate technique. (Arikunto, 2003: 275-276)
Experimental design is the blueprint of the procedures that enable the researcher to test hypotheses by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variable (Best, 1981: 68). Selection of a particular design is based upon the purposes of the experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the conditions or limiting factors under which it is conducted. According to Best (1981: 68-81), there are three categories of experimental design.
True Experimental Design
In a true experiment the equivalence of the experiment and control groups is provided by random assignment of subjects to experiment and control treatments. In discussing experimental designs, a few symbols are used:
R = random selection of subjects
X = experimental variable
C = control variable
O = observation or test
There are three models of true experimental designs:
1) The posttest-only, equivalent-groups design
This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats to experimental validity. Experimental and control group are equated by random assignment. At the conclusion of the experimental period the difference between the mean test scores of the experimental and control groups are subjected to a test of statistical significance, a t test, or an analysis of variance. The assumption is that the means of randomly assigned experimental and control groups from the same population will differ only to the extent that random sample means from the same population will differ as a result of sampling error. If the difference between the means is too great to attribute to sampling error, the difference may be attributed to the treatment variable effect.
2) The pretest-posttest equivalent-groups design
X gain = O2 – O1 O1 O3 = pretest
C gain = O4 – O3 O2 O4 = posttest
This design is similar to the previously described design, except that pretests are administered before the application of the experimental and control treatments and posttests at the end of the treatment period. Gain scores may be compared and subjected to a test of the significance of the difference between means. This is a strong design, but there may be a possibility of the influence of the effect of testing and the interaction with the experimental variable.
3) The Solomon four-group design
The design is really a combination of the two group designs previously described, the population is randomly divided into four samples. Two of the groups are experimental samples. Two groups experience no experimental manipulation of variables. Two groups receive a pretest and a posttest. Two groups receive only a posttest. It is possible to evaluate the main effects of testing, history, and maturation. A two-way analysis of variance is used to compare the four posttest scores, analysis of covariance to compare gains in O2 and O4. Since this design provides for two simultaneous experiments, the advantages of a replication are incorporated. A major difficulty is finding enough subjects to randomly assign to four equivalent groups.
CHAPTER III
METODOLOGY OF STUDY
3.1 Subjects of the Study
3.1.1 Population
Best (1991: 8) states that population is any group of individuals that has one or more characteristics in common, while according to Johnson (1987: 110), population is the entire group of entities or persons to which the results of the study are intended to apply. The population of this study was the 8th year students of SMP N 1 Talaga Raya, in the academic year of 2006/2007. The total number of the population was 308 students divided into 7 classes. It means that each class had 44 students. The reason for choosing the 8th year students was because there was an English-speaking extracurricular activity. This activity was held once a week. Therefore, the writer decided to choose this school based on this consideration.
3.1.2 Sample
Sometimes, the number of population is too big so it is out of the reach. In this case, the research is conducted to a part of the whole population. This part must have the characteristics that represent the whole population. According to Best (1981: 8) a sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.
In selecting sample, the writer used random sampling. According to Arikunto (1998:120), research may take 1 up to 15 percent or 20 up to 25 percent out of the population. Therefore, the writer took 13 percent out of 308 students or equal to 40 students as the sample for this study. The sample was divided into two groups consisting of 20 students in experiment group and 20 students in control group.
The writer cannot take the sample randomly from the population because the population was in intact classes. The writer chose 20 students of VIII.C and 20 students of VIII.D. The reasons why the writer chose these two classes were because the averages of the English scores were not significantly different, and the same English teacher taught these two classes. The writer did lottery to choose which one would be experiment class and control class. Then the writer chose the students with even numbers in experiment class and odd numbers in control class. The writer did not take all of the students both in VIII.C and VIII.D classes for efficiency and practical reasons.
3.2 Variable
According to Brown (1988: 7-8), a variable is something that may vary or differ. A variable is essentially what we can observe or quantity of the human characteristics or abilities involved. Best (1981: 59) states that variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls, or observes.
1) Dependent variable
Dependent variable is the factor that is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable, that is, the factor that appears, disappears or varies as the experimenter introduces, removes, or varies the independent variable (Tuckman: 59). Based on the definition, the dependent variable of this study is the students’ achievement. The students’ score of story retelling test indicates the students’ achievement
2) Independent variable
Independent variable is the factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon (Tuckman: 58-59). Based on the definition, the independent variable of this study is the use of comics in teaching story retelling.
3.3 Research Design
In this research the writer used true experimental design, specifically the pretest-posttest equivalent groups design.
The pretest-posttest groups design figures:
R O1 X O2
R O3 C O4
X gain = O2-O1 O1 O3 = pretest X = experiment
C gain = O4-O3 O2 O4 = posttest C = control
This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats to experimental validity. Pretests are administered before the application of the experimental and control treatments and posttests at the end of the treatment period. Gain scores may be compared and subjected to a test of significance of the difference between two means (Best, 1981:70).
Based on this statement, the writer gave the pretest to both groups. The writer gave a treatment, i.e. giving cartoon comic twice a week for a month, to the experiment group as an alternative way of teaching speaking. Their own English teacher taught the control group by using stories in written text.
3.4 Instrument
Kerlinger (1965:118) states that an instrument plays an important role in a study in the sense that reliability of the instrument will influence the reliability of the data obtained. Before collecting the data, the writer made instrument such as a rating scale and a questionnaire.
1. Rating Scale
The writer used a rating scale as proposed by Harris to score the students' result in speaking test. This is a 5-level rating scale. This rating scale measures the students' speaking skills especially in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.
The rating scales for the speaking test modified from David P. Harris and Walter Bartz can be seen as follow:
Table 1
Rating Scale
Pronunciation 5
4
3
2
1 Speech consists of almost appropriate pronunciation
Speech consists of hardly incorrect pronunciation
Speech consists of some inappropriate pronunciation
Speech consists of mostly inappropriate pronunciation
Speech consists of very poor pronunciation
Grammar 5
4
3
2
1 Makes few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar or word order
Occasionally makes grammatical and/or word-order
errors which do not, however, obscure
Makes frequent errors of grammar and word order which occasionally obscure meaning
Grammar and word-order errors make comprehension difficult. Must often rephrase sentences and/or restrict himself to basic pattern.
Errors in grammar and word order so severe as to make conversation virtually unintelligible
Vocabulary 5
4
3
2
1 Use of wide range of vocabulary taught previously
Sometimes uses inappropriate terms and/or must rephrase ideas because of lexical inadequacies
Frequently uses the wrong words; conversation somewhat limited because of inadequate vocabulary
Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary make comprehension quite difficult
Vocabulary limitations so extreme as to make conversation virtually impossible
Fluency 5
4
3
2
1 Speech is quite flowing style, mostly easy to understand
Speed of speech seems to be slightly affected by language problems
Speed and fluency are rather strongly affected by language problems
Usually hesitant; often forced into silence by language limitation
Speech is so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible
Content 5
4
3
2
1 Ideas highly organized, covers all of the elements of the story
Ideas well organized, covers almost all of the elements of the story
Ideas less organized, some missing parts of the elements of story
Ideas less organized, covers only the main elements of the story
Unorganized ideas, a lot of missing parts of the elements.
2. Questionnaire
After doing the post-test, the writer distributed questionnaire in the last activity. The purpose was to answer the questions about the students' achievement in receiving the material from the writer. The questions were about:
1. The students' interest in comics that were given by the writer during the research.
2. The relevance between the vocabulary offered in this research and the vocabulary that the students often use in their daily speaking.
3. The students' mastery of the material.
4. The sustainability of the research program.
The questionnaire can be seen in appendix 13.
Providing value of graded scores is very important, since the result of the mean is not in round figure, but decimal. The result of the questionnaire data analysis of each issue can be classified into a range of mean below.
Table 2
Classification of graded Scores
Range of
mean Students'
interest
The relevance Students'
achievement Sustainability
0.00-1.00 Low Not relevant Low Not
necessary
1.01-2.00 Medium Relevant Medium Necessary
2.01-3.00 High Very relevant High Very
necessary
The aim of this research was to measure the speaking ability of the students. The writer used the rating scale to measure the students’ speaking ability especially in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. In this research the writer used a recorder to record the students' voices for accuracy of scoring.
To observe the students’ speaking ability, the writer and the teacher asked the students to come forward and retell the story in 3-5 minutes individually. Then, the writer and the teacher scored the student's speaking ability using the rating scale modified from David P Harris and Walter Bartz. There were five components in scoring the speaking test. First component was pronunciation. The teacher and the writer rated 5 for the pronunciation if the student speech consisted
of almost appropriate pronunciation; 4 if student’s speech consisted of hardly incorrect pronunciation; 3 if student’s speech consisted of inappropriate pronunciation; 2 if student’s speech consisted of mostly inappropriate pronunciation and 1 if student’s speech consisted of very poor pronunciation.
The second component was grammar. For student's mastery of grammar, a student was rated 5 if he/she made few noticeable errors of grammar or word- order; 4 if he/she occasionally made grammatical or word-order errors which did not, however, obscure meaning; 3 if he/she made frequent errors of grammar and word order which occasionally obscure meaning; 2 if he/she produced grammar and word-order errors that made comprehension difficult and 1 if he/she made errors in grammar and word order so severe as to make conversation virtually unintelligible.
The third component was vocabulary. For mastery of vocabulary, the student was rated 5 if he/she used wide range of vocabulary taught previously; 4 if he/she sometimes used inappropriate terms or had to rephrase ideas because of lexical inadequacies; 3 if he/she frequently used the wrong words, conversation somewhat limited because of inadequate vocabulary; 2 if he/she misused of words and very limited vocabulary made comprehension quite difficult and 1 if his/her limitation of vocabulary was so extreme as to make conversation virtually impossible.
The fourth component was fluency. The teacher and the writer rated 5 if student’s speech was quite flowing style, mostly easy to understand; 4 if student’s speed of speech seemed to be slightly affected by language problems; 3 if speed and fluency of the student were rather strongly affected by language problems; 2 if student’s speech was usually hesitant; often forced into silence by language limitation and 1 if student’s speech was so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible.
The fifth component was content. If the student's ideas were highly organized, it covered all of the elements of the story, the writer and the teacher rated him/her 5; student was rated 4 if his/her ideas were well organized, it covered almost all of the elements of the story; 3 if his/her ideas were less organized, there were some missing parts of the elements of the story; 2 if his/her ideas were less organized, it covered only the main elements of the story and 1 if his/her ideas were unorganized, there were a lot of missing parts of the elements of the story.
The scale of 0 up to 100 will be used to make the scoring easier. Here, the maximum rate a student got was 25. So, the obtained rate was multiplied by 4.
3.5 The Try Out
Trying out the test is necessary since the result can be used to measure the validity and the reliability of the test and it can be carried out in either a small scale or a large one (Arikunto, 1993:223).
Before the rating scale was used as an instrument to collect the data, it had been tried out first to the students in an other class. The rating scale consisted of 5 components of scoring. They were pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. There were 20 students in try out group and they had to do the test orally in 3-5 minutes. After scoring the result of the try out, the writer made an analysis to find out the validity and reliability of the items of the test.
The try out was held on December 14th, 2006 in other class. There were 20 students in the try out group. The result of the try out can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6 Condition of the Test
3.6.1 Validity of the Test
The validity of a test represents the extent to which a test measures what is purpose to measure. In simple word does the test really measure the characteristic that is being used to measure (Tuckman, 1978: 163). In addition, according to Best (1981: 153), validity is that quality of a data-gathering instrument or procedure that enables it to determine what it was designed to determine. Validity is a standard criterion that shows whether the instrument is valid or not.
The writer used empirical validity since this research deals with statistical. To calculate the empirical validity of each item, the writer used Pearson Product Moment proposed by Arikunto (2002: 146). The formula is:
Where:
rxy : the coefficient of correlation between X and Y variable or
validity of each item.
N : the number of students/subject participating in the test
X : the sum of X scores
Y : the sum of Y scores
∑Y : the sum of total score for each student
∑X : the sum of score in each item
∑XY : the sum of multiple score from each student with the total score in
each item
∑X2 : the sum of the square score in each item
∑Y2 : the sum of square total score from each student
rxy = 0.857. For α = 5% and number of the subject 20, r table = 0.444.
Because the result of the instrument is higher than the critical value, it is considered that the instrument is valid. The computation of validity can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6.2 Reliability of the Test
The reliability of the test is the quality of consistency that the instrument or procedure demonstrates over a period of time (Best, 1981:154). Reliability shows whether the instrument is reliable and can be used as a device to collect the data. Reliability means the stability of test scores when the test is used. To measure the reliability of the test, the writer used the formula:
where:
r11 : index reliability
k : number of item
αb2 : item variance
αt2 :total variance
To find out the variance of each item, the formula is :
Then to find out the total variance, the formula is:
r11 = 0.826, for α = 5% and number subject 20, r table = 0.444. Because the result of the instrument is higher than the critical value, it is considered that the instrument is reliable. The computation of reliability can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6.3 The Difficulty Level
Analysis of difficulty level is intended to select the items which have good level of difficulty. Heaton (1981: 172) states that the index of difficulty or the facility value of an item simply shows how easy or difficult the particular item proved in the test. An item considered having good level of difficulty if it is not too difficult or too easy. To calculate the value of the level of difficulty, the following formula was used:
Where
IK : the difficulties of the index
B : the number of students who passed the passing grade
Js : the total number of testees
(Arifin, 1991: 135)
Table 3
The criteria of difficulty level
Level Criteria
0% < TK < 27%
27% < TK < 72%
72% < TK < 100% Difficult
Medium
Easy
If the index difficulty is high, an item considered easy, on the other hand, an item is considered difficult if it is low.
The computation of the difficulty level can be seen in appendix 4.
3.6.4 Discriminating Power
Discriminating power tells how the item performs in separating the better from the poorer students. If the good students tend to do well on an item and the poor students badly on the same item, then the item is a good one because it distinguishes the good from the poor students.
Heaton (1975: 173) states that the discrimination index of an item indicates the extent to which the item discriminates between the testees separating the more from the less able. The index of discrimination tell us whether those students who performed well on the whole test tended to do or badly on each item in the test.
The writer calculated the item discrimination using the formula:
The computation of the discriminating power can be seen in appendix 4.
3.7 Scoring System
Testing speaking requires the subjective judgments on the part of the raters, thus, teacher’ perception of oral assessment and oral assessment rating scales affect the testing process substantially (Weir, 1990). To minimize subjective judgments, the writer and the teacher score the students used rating scales developed by David P. Harris modified by Walter Bartz and then the score divided by two.
In this study, the writer gave oral test to the students and analyzed their scores to measure the improvement and gave scores on pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.
In order for the raw scores to become more meaningful numerical data, they should be converted to numerical data, which had been processed to the scale of 0 to 100, so the scores of the students was multiply by 4. Then, the processed scores could be used as a basic to make decisions. If all students, scores were arranged from the highest to the lowest, it would be easier to know the position of a student in his/her group.
The measurement of the students' achievement that is suggested by Harris (1969: 134) could be interpreted with the following table.
Table 4
Students' achievement
Criteria of mastery Grade
91-100 Excellent
81-90 Very Good
71-80 Good
61-70 Fair
51-60 Poor
Less than 50 Very Poor
3.8 Method of Data Analysis
After collecting the data, the writer analyzed them by using statistical analysis. The writer transcribed the students’ oral test on paper and then she scored the result of oral test.
To differentiate whether the students’ result of speaking English using comic and without using comic is significant or not the writer used the t-test formula as follow:
Where
t : t-test
Me : the mean difference of the experiment group
Mc : the mean difference of control group
Sse : sum of quadrate deviation of the experiment group
Ssc : sum of quadrate deviation of the control group
Ne : the number of experiment group
Nc : the number of control group
Before calculating the t-test the writer calculated mean, variance, and standard deviation.
3.8.1 Mean
Mean is computed by using the formula:
where:
X : mean
X : sum of scores
N : number of scores
3.8.2 Variance
The variance of a group of scores is computed by using the following formula:
where:
S 2 : variance
X : individual scores
N : number of scores in the group
3.8.3 Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a group of scores is computed by using the following formula:
where:
S : standard deviation
X : individual scores
N : number of scores in group
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